UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


THE   ECONOMIC   VALUE   OF 
PACIFIC  COAST  KELPS 


BY 

JOHN  S.  BURD 


BULLETIN  No.  248 

February,  1915 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 
BERKELEY 
1915 


Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 
HEADS  of  divisions 

Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt,  Director. 

Eugene  W.   Hilgard,  Agricultural  Chemistry    (Emeritus). 

Edward  J.  Wickson,  Horticulture. 

Herbert  J.  Webber,  Director  Citrus  Experiment  Station ;   Plant  Breeding. 

Hubert  E.  Van  Norman,  Vice-Director;  Dairy  Management. 

William  A.  Setchell,  Botany. 

Myer  E.  Jaffa,  Nutrition. 

Robert  H.   Loughridge,   Soil  Chemistry  and  Physics    (Emeritus). 

Charles  W.  Woodworth,  Entomology. 

Ralph  E.  Smith,  Plant  Pathology. 

J.  Eliot  Coit,  Citriculture. 

John  W.  Gilmore,  Agronomy. 

Charles  F.  Shaw,  Soil  Technology. 

John  W.   Gregg,  Landscape  Gardening  and  Floriculture. 

Frederic  T.  Bioletti,  Viticulture  and  Enology. 

Warrbn  T.  Clarke,  Agricultural  Extension. 

John  S.  Burd,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

Charles  B.  Lipman,  Soil  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology. 

Clarence  M.  Haring,  Veterinary  Science  and  Bacteriology. 

Ernest  B.  Babcock,  Genetics. 

Gordon  H.  True,  Animal  Husbandry. 

Arnold  V.  Stubenrauch,  Pomology. 

Fritz  W.  Woll,  Animal  Nutrition. 

James  T.  Barrett,  Plant  Pathology. 

William  G.  Hummel,  Agricultural  Education. 

Walter  Mulford,  Forestry. 

Frank  Adams,  Irrigation  Practice. 

David  N.  Morgan,  Assistant  to  the  Director. 

Mrs.  D.  L.  Bunnell,  Librarian. 


DIVISION   OF  AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY 

John   S.  Burd.  Paul  L.  Hibbard. 

Guy  R.  Stewart.  Walter  H.  Dore. 

Dennis   R.   Hoagland.  Harold  E.  Billings. 


THE  ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  PACIFIC  COAST  KELPS 


BY 

JOHN  S.  BUKD' 


A  great  deal  has  been  written  in  the  past  few  years  in  reference 
to  the  commercial  utilization  of  certain  seaweeds  or  kelps  growing  in 
the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Coast  of  North  America.  Several  species, 
notable  for  their  extraordinary  size  and  commonly  called  "giant 
kelps,"  are  to  be  found  in  scattered  beds  along  the  coast  of  California. 
Of  these,  the  kelp  known  as  Nereocystis  Luetkeana  occurs  in  occasional 
beds  from  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state  to  Point  Conception, 
the  more  abundant  stands  south  of  that  point  consisting  largely  of 
Macrocystis  pyrifera. 

The  present  paper  embodies  a  portion  of  the  results  obtained  in 
this  laboratory  in  an  extensive  series  of  studies  on  the  chemistry  of 
kelps.  Some  of  these  studies  have  more  scientific  interest  than  imme- 
diate practical  importance.  It  is  thought  desirable  to.  reserve  these 
latter  for  publication  elsewhere  and  to  consider  here  only  such  data 
and  conclusions  as  have  bearing  on  the  commercial  utilization  of  kelp. 
The  results  presented  hereafter  furnish  the  following  general  con- 
clusions : 

1.  The  giant  kelps  contain  potassium,  iodine  and  nitrogen  in 
amounts  which  will  possibly  justify  commercial  recovery. 

2.  Estimates  of  potash  yields  which  are  based  on  analyses  of  leaves 
and  stems  and  do  not  take  into  account  the  larger  proportion  of  leaf 
to  stem  in  the  growing  plant  are  likely  to  be  higher  than  can  be 
expected  in  the  average  run  of  commercial  recovery. 

3.  Exact  determinations  of  the  moisture  content  of  the  more  com- 
mon of  the  giant  kelps,  here  presented  for  the  first  time,  show  that 
weight  for  weight  of  fresh  kelp  Macrocystis  pyrifera  contains  more  of 
each  important  constituent  than  does  Nereocystis  Luetkeana. 


*  Grateful  acknowledgment  is  made  to  Professor  Wm.  A.  Setchell  of  the 
University  of  California  for  helpful  advice  and  assistance  in  collecting  material; 
to  Professor  Frank  M.  McFarland  of  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  for 
the  use  of  the  Marine  Biological  Laboratory  at  Pacific  Grove,  and  to  Dr.  W.  W. 
McKay  of  the  United  States  Marine  Hospital  Service  for  the  use  of  wharf  and 
drying  sheds  at  San  Diego.  Acknowledgment  is  also  made  to  the  following 
members  of  this  staff:  G.  E.  Stewart,  D.  R.  Hoagland,  P.  L.  Hibbard,  and 
W.  H.  Dore  for  the  large  amount  of  analytical  work  and  other  assistance  involved 
in  this  studv. 

[183] 


184  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

4.  The  efflorescence  of  potash  salts  when  kelps  are  slowly  dried 
cannot  be  utilized  to  advantage  in  the  commercial  preparation  of 
potash  if  a  large  yield  of  high  grade  salts  is  desired. 

5.  No  technological  difficulties  are  involved  in  preparing  high  grade 
potash  salts  and  iodine  from  kelp,  but  exact  costs  of  production  can 
only  be  arrived  at  from  data  obtained  on  a  large  scale,  as  in  actual 
factory  practice.  Apparently,  however,  extraordinary  profits  are  not 
to  be  expected  owing  to  the  limited  value  of  the  product  and  the  large 
amount  of  manipulation  involved  in  the  various  methods  of  recovery. 

6.  Air-dried  kelp  will  furnish  a  low  grade  potash  fertilizer  com- 
parable to  kainit  and  containing  in  addition  over  1  per  cent  of  nitrogen 
and  50  per  cent  of  organic  matter  capable  of  furnishing  humus  to 
the  soil. 

7.  Objections  to  the  use  of  dried  kelp  because  of  the  presence  of 
sodium  and  chlorine  are  untenable,  because  this  material  contains  less 
sodium  and  chlorine  than  most  of  the  commercial  potash  salts  now 
being  used  and  is  but  little  inferior  in  this  respect  to  the  highest  grades 
of  muriate. 

The  pioneer  work  of  Balch1  has  shown  that  the  giant  kelps  of  the 
Pacific  Coast,  notably  Macrocystis  pyrifera,  Pelagophycus  porra,  and 
Nereocystis  Luetkeana,  contain  extraordinary  quantities  of  potassium 
salts,  largely  in  the  form  of  potassium  chloride.  Turrentine2  and  his 
co-workers3  have  much  enlarged  our  information  in  this  field  and 
presented  valuable  data  as  to  the  magnitude  and  variations  in  compo- 
sition of  these  and  other  species  of  marine  algae.  Based  on  this  work, 
some  interesting  speculations  have  been  published  as  to  the  possibility 
of  founding  an  industry  for  the  recovery  of  potash  salts,  iodine  and 
other  substances  from  kelp.  The  affirmative  view4  expressed  by  some 
of  these  has  not  been  without  contradiction,5  and  it  is  evident  that 
further  information  is  essential  to  a  determination  of  the  economic 
status  of  these  curious  plants. 


1  On  the  Chemistry  of  Certain  Algae  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  by  David  M.  Balch, 
Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  1,  No.  12,  December,  1909. 

2  The  Composition  of  the  Pacific  Kelps,  by  J.  AV.  Turrentine,  Journal  of 
Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  No.  6,  June,  1912. 

3  Analyses  of  Certain  of  the  Pacific  Coast  Kelps,  by  E.  G.  Parker  and  J.  R. 
Lindemuth,  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  5,  No.  4, 
April,  1913. 

*  Potash  from  the  Pacific  Kelps,  by  F.  K.  Cameron,  Journal  of  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  No.  2,  February,  1912. 

»  The  Business  Aspect  of  the  Kelp  Proposition,  by  F.  P.  Dewey,  Journal  of 
Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  No.  4,  April,  1912;  Seaweed,  Pot- 
ash and  Iodine,  a  Criticism,  by  Henrik  Knudsen,  Journal  of  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  No.  8,  August,  1912. 


Bulletin  248 


PACIFIC    COAST    KELPS 


185 


A  careful  search  of  the  literature  indicates  that  the  kelps  from 
which  the  most  is  to  be  expected  are  those  heretofore  mentioned.  In 
collecting  material  for  this  investigation  stations  were  established  at 
San  Diego  and  Pacific  Grove,  as  being  both  representative  and  con- 
venient. All  photographing,  measurement  of  dimensions  and  weights 
and  preliminary  drying  of  plants  was  conducted  in  the  field.  The 
observations  of  G.  R.  Stewart,  who  performed  the  field  work,  confirm 
those  of  other  observers  in  that  for  Southern  California  the  Macro- 
cystis  pyrifera  is  the  most  abundant  species,  Pelagophycus  porra  being 
"only  sparsely  distributed  over  limited  areas";6  while  for  the  central 
Californian  coast  both  Microcystis  and  Nereocystis  occur  in  beds  of 
considerable  size. 

The  botanical  structure,  habitat,  method  of  reproduction,  etc.,  have 
been  described  for  all  of  the  important  species  of  kelp.7  The  photo- 
graphs herewith  will  perhaps  illustrate  better  than  further  description 


Macrocystis  pyrifera,  complete  plant  of  small  size,  holdfast  attached 
to  rock;  sample  taken  off  Point  Loma  at  the  mouth  of  San  Diego  Bay. 
(Photograph  inverted  to  show  habit  of  growth.) 


e  The  Kelps  of  the  Southern  Californian  Coast,  by  W.  C.  Crandall,  Fertilizer 
Resources  of  the  United  States,  Senate  Document  No.  190,  p.  211. 

7  The  Kelps  of  the  United  States  and  Alaska,  by  Wm.  A.  Setchell,  Fertilizer 
Resources  of  the  United  States,  Senate  Document  No.  190;  Ecological  and 
Economic  Notes  on  Puget  Sound  Kelps,  by  George  B.  Rigg,  Fertilizer  Resources 
of  the  United  States,  Senate  Document  No.  190;  The  Kelps  of  the  Central  Cali- 
fornian Coast,  by  Frank  M.  McFarland,  Fertilizer  Resources  of  the  United 
States,  Senate  Document  No.  190. 


186 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


the  mode  of  growth  and  suggest  some  of  the  problems  to  be  expected 
in  harvesting  the  plants.  It  should  be  noted  that  all  of  these  are 
attached  to  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  usually  on  rocks,  and  that  the  entire 
plant  is  only  harvested  with  difficulty.  In  Pelagophycas  and  Nereo- 
cystis  the  pneumatocyst  (hollow  bulb  and  adjacent  portion  of  stem) 
tend  to  float  and  support  the  leaves  near  the  surface  of  the  water.    In 


Pelagophycus  porra,  mature  plant  taken  near  Point  Loma. 


Macrocystis,  however,  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  and  relatively 
smaller  bulbs  with  reference  to  the  stems  is  such  that  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  plant  will  always  be  beyond  the  depth  of  convenient 
harvesting.  In  this  work  the  entire  plant  was  harvested  wherever 
possible  and  divided  into  so-called  ' ' harvestable "  and  "non-harvest- 
able"  portions.  The  former  comprising  all  of  that  portion  within 
twelve  feet  of  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  latter  including  the 


Bulletin  24S 


PACIFIC    COAST    KELPS 


187 


remainder  of  the  plant,  exclusive  of  holdfast,  hapteres  and  adhering 
leaves.  Further,  the  leaves  (laminae)  were  carefully  severed  from 
the  stemlike  portions  (stipes  and  pneumatocysts).  Specimens  were 
thus  segregated  into  four  portions,  designated  herein  as  harvestable 
leaves,  harvestable  stems,  non-harvestable  leaves  and  non-harvestable 
stems.     The  advantage  of  this  procedure  is  that  all  data  subsequently 


Nereocystis  Luefkeana,  complete  old  plant,  taken  off  Point  Cypress. 

obtained  may  be  computed  either  to  structurally  distinct  portions  of 
the  plant  (leaves  and  stems)  or  to  economically  distinct  portions  (har- 
vestable and  non-harvestable). 


RELATIVE  PROPORTIONS  OF  LEAVES  AND  STEMS  IN  FRESH  KELP 

Macrocystis  pyrifera. — The  samples  of  this  species  varied  in  weight 
(exclusive  of  holdfast)  from  27  to  300  pounds,  and  25  to  80  per  cent 
of  the  entire  plant  was  harvestable.  In  general,  the  greater  percent- 
ages of  harvestable  portion  are  to  be  found  in  the  larger  plants.     Of 


188 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


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the  harvestable  portion,  from  60  to  75  per  cent  consisted  of  leaves. 
It  will  be  seen  subsequently  that  the  potash  content  of  the  leaves  of 
all  species  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  stems.  Some  of  the  estimates 
of  the  potash  content  of  kelps  have  not  taken  into  account  the  dispro- 
portion between  the  amounts  of  leaf  and  stem  and  have  tended  to 
assign  values  to  the  plants  as  a  whole  which  they  do  not  possess. 

Pelagophycus  porta. — These  plants  varied  in  weight  from  16  to  71 
pounds,  from  85  to  96  per  cent  of  the  entire  plant  being  harvestable. 
Of  the  harvestable  portion,  from  57  to  73  per  cent  consisted  of  leaves. 

Nereocystis  Laetkeana. — It  was  not  found  possible  to  harvest  entire 
plants,  but  practically  all  was  obtained  in  each  case,  the  very  small 
stipe  anchoring  the  plant  to  the  ocean  bed  being  negligible  and  prob- 
ably not  amounting  to  more  than  1  or  2  per  cent  by  weight.  The 
maximum  weight  of  any  plant  was  56  pounds  at  the  season  sampled 
(fall).  Of  the  harvestable  portion,  from  50  to  77  per  cent  consisted 
of  leaves. 

MAJOR  ECONOMIC  CONSTITUENTS  OF  KELP 

While  a  considerable  number  of  partial  analyses  of  the  various 
parts  and  of  entire  kelps  have  been  published  heretofore,  the  methods 
of  sampling  and  arrangement  of  data  have  not  been  such  as  to  justify 
exact  conclusions  as  to  what  is  to  be  expected  in  the  average  run  of 
commercial  recovery.  It  is  believed  that  the  results  here  reported  are 
free  from  this  objection  owing  to  the  extreme  precautions  which  were 
taken  in  sampling  and  to  the  fact  that  the  initial  weighings  were  made 
almost  immediately  after  harvesting. 

Sampling  of  Kelps. — In  this  operation  plants  as  drawn  from  the 
water  were  immediately  covered  with  a  tarpaulin  to  prevent  evapor- 
ation. As  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  specimens  had  been  collected 
they  were  taken  ashore,  weighed,  placed  on  a  smooth  floor  under  cover, 
measured  and  dissected  into  the  four  portions  heretofore  mentioned. 
The  samples  for  analysis  were  obtained  by  cutting  up  each  portion 
into  small  segments,  mixing  and  withdrawing  grab  samples.  Weighed 
portions  of  each  sample  were  air  dried,  placed  in  glass  containers, 
sealed  and  forwarded  to  the  laboratory.  Samples  in  practically  all 
cases  consisted  of  two  kilograms  of  material.  All  were  dried  immedi- 
ately on  reaching  the  laboratory,  usually  within  two  or  three  days 
after  taking  from  the  water.    In  no  case  was  any  putrefaction  observed. 

Character  of  Data. — The  results  shown  in  Table  2  indicate  that 
kelps,  like  land  plants,  are  subject  to  variation  in  composition,  and  it 
may  be  contended  that  conclusions  as  to  the  average  composition  should 
be  based  on  a  very  much  larger  number  of  specimens  than  represented 


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198  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

here.  It  seems  to  the  writer,  however,  that  there  is  sufficient  uni- 
formity in  most  of  the  determinations  to  justify  a  fairly  definite 
opinion  as  to  the  value  of  kelps  from  the  data  here  presented,  for 
while  there  is  occasionally  an  aberrant  figure  the  variation  of  most  of 
the  determinations  from  the  average  is  not  large.  A  remarkable  uni- 
formity of  the  moisture  content  of  analagous  portions  of  plants  is 
particularly  noticeable. 

The  summary  on  page  199  indicates  the  distribution  of  important 
constituents. 

The  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  iodine  content  of  the  leaves  is 
uniformly  higher  than  that  of  the  stems  of  the  same  species.  The 
potash  content  of  the  stems  is  very  much  greater  than  that  of  the 
leaves,  being  nearly  two  to  one  in  Macrocystis.  The  moisture  content 
of  the  stems  is  invariably  slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  leaves. 

The  striking  differences  in  composition  between  the  leaves  and 
stems  of  kelps  might  perhaps  suggest  the  possibility  of  a  segregation 
of  leaves  and  stems  in  commercial  production.  To  any  one  who 
handles  these  plants,  however,  it  becomes  evident  that  such  segre- 
gation is  out  of  the  question,  and  it  would  seem  therefore  that  estimates 
as  to  the  value  of  the  plants  must  be  based  upon  the  composition  of 
the  harvestable  leaves  and  stems  taken  together  rather  than  individ- 
ually.    The  data  included  in  Table  4  are  presented  with  this  in  mind. 

The  figures  for  the  non-harvestable  portion  are  included  merely 
because  of  their  general  interest,  and  it  is  not  contended  that  they 
are  of  any  particular  value  for  our  present  purpose.  Some  inconsist- 
ency will  perhaps  be  noticed,  however,  in  that  the  figures  for  indi- 
vidual constituents  in  the  harvestable  portion  are  sometimes  higher 
and  sometimes  lower  than  the  corresponding  figures  for  the  non- 
harvestable  portion.  This  is  not  a  real  inconsistency,  but  is  due  to 
differences  in  the  relative  amounts  of  leaf  to  stem,  both  in  harvestable 
and  non-harvestable  parts. 

The  summary  of  the  average  composition  of  the  harvestable  por- 
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Of  the  giant  kelps,  Macrocystis  is  the  only  one  growing  on  both 
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that  the  specimens  from  the  north  are  distinctly  superior  in  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  but  slightly  inferior  in  iodine  content. 
Comparing  all  plants  on  the  water-free  basis,  it  is  evident  that 
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the  most  potash  and  iodine  and  comparable  quantities  of  nitrogen 
and  phosphoric  acid.  Nereocystis  is  next  because  of  high  potash,  even 
though  distinctly  inferior  in  iodine  content.     At  this  point,  however. 


Bulletin  248 


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Bulletin  248  PACIFIC   COAST  KELPS  205 

it  should  be  accentuated  that  the  cost  of  harvesting  and  drying-  fresh 
kelp  are  important  economic  factors  in  the  production  of  dried  kelp, 
so  that  estimates  of  the  relative  value  of  these  materials  should  be 
based  on  the  fresh  material  rather  than  the  dried.  On  this  basis, 
Pelagophycus  continues  to  hold  first  place,  but  Nereocystis  drops  below 
Macrocystis,  being  distinctly  inferior  to  the  latter  in  every  respect. 
To  obtain  one  ton  of  water-free  Nereocystis  would  require  the  har- 
vesting and  drying  of  11.9  tons  of  the  fresh  plants  as  against  7 A  tons 
of  Macrocystis.  The  superiority  of  dried  Nereocystis  over  dried 
Macrocystis  is  not  sufficient  to  overcome  the  handicap  of  the  large 
amount  of  water  in  the  fresh  material.  In  view  of  the  comparative 
sparseness  of  Pelagophycus  and  the  inferiority  of  Nereocystis  it  would 
seem  that  Macrocystis  would  be  the  most  important  source  of  raw 
material  if  it  is  found  practicable  to  utilize  kelps  for  manufacturing 
purposes. 

RECOVERY  OF  POTASH  AND  IODINE 

Leaving  out  of  consideration,  for  the  present,  the  possibility  of 
obtaining  economically  valuable  substances  from  the  organic  (non- 
salt)  portions  of  kelp,  it  is  evident  that  the  separation  of  potash  and 
iodine  are  of  the  first  importance.  It  has  been  shown  elsewhere8  that 
when  kelps  are  dried  slowly  there  is  always  a  tendency  to  form  a 
crust  or  coating  (efflorescence)  on  the  surface  of  the  plant.  In  some 
cases  this  apparently  amounts  to  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
salts  present.  The  table  on  page  206  indicates  what  is  to  be  expected 
in  this  respect. 

In  the  case  of  Macrocystis  leaves  only  a  slight  efflorescence  occurred 
and  the  salts  formed  a  thin,  closely  adherent  layer,  preventing  separ- 
ation. The  percentages  of  salts  effloresced  by  the  Macrocystis  stems, 
Nereocystis  leaves  and  Nereocystis  stems  Avere  respectively  15,  24  and 
43.  These  contained  no  iodine,  but  carried  extraordinary  percentages 
of  potash.  If  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  muriate  of  potash  contains 
63.1  per  cent  of  potash  (K20),  it  appears  that  the  potash  in  the 
effloresced  salts  (60.85  to  61.92  per  cent)  represents  muriate  of  a  high 
degree  of  purity  (over  95  per  cent).  In  spite  of  this,  the  fact  that 
the  potash  effloresced  never  exceeds  58.7  per  cent  of  the  total  present 
in  an}T  sample  (see  Nereocystis  stems)  indicates  that  further  extraction 
of  the  residual  kelp  presumably  by  water  would  be  necessary,  if  the 
remaining  potash  salts  are  to  be  separated  and  iodine  recovered.     If 


s  On  the  Chemistry  of  Certain  Algae  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  by  David  M.  Balch, 
Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  1,  No.  12,  December,  1909. 


206 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


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Bulletin  248  PACIFIC  COAST  KELPS  207 

the  highly  absorbent  tissues  of  the  plants  have  to  be  again  saturated 
with  water  it  would  appear  that  the  preliminary  drying,  incident  to 
causing  efflorescence  to  occur,  would  be  an  unnecessary  step.  Such  a 
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residual  kelp  is  by  a  dry  process,  and  any  dry  process  would  involve 
either  the  loss  of  organic  matter,  as  in  burning  to  obtain  kelp  ash, 
or  loss  of  iodine  if  the  residue  is  merely  dried,  ground  and  used  as  a 
low  grade  potash  fertilizer. 

In  attempts  to  separate  a  complex  mixture  of  colloidal  and  crystal- 
lizable  material  such  as  the  tissues  of  kelp  the  method  of  water  ex- 
traction is  the  first  to  suggest  itself.  The  possibilities  of  this  method 
are  indicated  by  a  study  of  the  table  on  page  208. 

Potash. — A  large  proportion  of  the  potash  (70.1-84.8  per  cent) 
was  extracted  in  every  case  from  the  fresh  kelp,  and  still  more  (90.6- 
95.4  per  cent)  from  the  dried  and  ground  material. 

Iodine. — In  all  cases  but  one  most  of  the  iodine  was  extra ctable 
from  fresh  kelp  and  the  yield  from  the  dried  and  ground  kelp  was 
materially  greater  in  five  out  of  the  six  samples. 

Organic  Matter. — Considerable  quantities  of  organic  matter  appear 
in  the  extract  from  fresh  kelp  and  these  are  greatly  increased  when 
the  dried  and  ground  kelp  is  used. 

There  is  evidently  no  difficulty  in  dissolving  in  water  the  potash 
and  iodine  constituent  in  kelp.  "When  the  kelp  has  been  previously 
dried  and  ground  the  extraction  is,  as  might  be  expected,  much  more 
efficient.  Doubtless  if  the  method  of  multiple  extraction  were  used 
practically  all  of  the  potash  and  iodine  would  be  removed  from  the 
tissues.  Unfortunately  large  percentages  of  organic  matter  also  dis- 
solve whenever  extraction  of  salts  is  at  all  efficient.  These  discolor 
the  solutions  and  seriously  interfere  with  the  subsequent  crystallization 
of  the  potash  salts.  Salts  obtained  from  such  solutions  are  always 
dark  in  color  and  difficult  to  separate.  To  secure  clean,  white  potash 
salts  either  by  fractional  crystallization  or  by  complete  evaporation 
of  the  solutions  is  impossible  without  burning  off  the  organic  matter 
present.  The  salts  remaining  after  incineration  have  a  fairly  high 
purity,  corresponding  to  60-80  per  cent  muriate  of  potash.  For 
Macrocystis  they  would  contain  about  41  per  cent  of  potash  equivalent 
to  muriate  of  64  per  cent  purity.  The  procedure  involves  a  loss  of 
one-sixth  to  one-third  of  the  organic  matter  of  kelp  and  leaves  the 
remaining  organic  matter  (practically  free  from  potash  and  iodine) 
saturated  with  water.  This  residuum  represents  approximately  one 
hundred  pounds  of  organic  matter  and  three  pounds  of  nitrogen  for 
every  ton  of  fresh  kelp.     Its  utilization  will  necessarily  depend  upon 


208 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 


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Bulletin  248  PACIFIC   COAST  KELPS  209 

its  humus-making  power  and  nitrogen  content,  if  used  for  fertilizing 
purposes,  or  upon  its  containing  organic  principles  of  commercial  value. 
Other  data  reported  elsewhere10  indicate  the  presence  of  no  such  valu- 
able principles.  Such  material  would  unquestionably  have  some  value 
as  a  humus  producer.  Its  value  in  this  respect,  together  with  its 
nitrogen  value,  might  possibly  justify  the  cost  of  drying  and  grinding. 
In  the  absence  of  definite  market  quotations  for  humus  it  hardly  seems 
worth  while  to  attempt  to  estimate  the  cost  of  production  of  such 
a  commodity.  The  above  procedure,  however,  or  some  modification 
thereof  would  seem  to  be  the  only  one  by  which  potash  and  iodine  are 
recoverable  from  kelp  without  substantial  loss  of  organic  compounds 
which  might  serve  as  a  source  of  humus.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it 
be  assumed  that  the  humus-making  power  of  the  organic  constituents 
is  not  sufficiently  great  to  justify  the  involved  procedure  described 
above,  it  at  once  becomes  evident  that  the  only  logical  method  of 
manufacture  would  be  the  complete  destruction  of  the  organic  matter 
by  burning  and  the  comparatively  simple  procedure  involved  in  the 
extraction  of  potash  and  iodine  from  the  char,  followed  by  fractional 
crystallization.  Hoagland  has  shown  that  in  the  residuum  obtained 
from  the  destructive  distillation  of  Macrocystis11  three  grades  of  pot- 
ash salts  of  high  purity  may  be  obtained,  the  average  composition  of 
these  amounting  to  55  per  cent  potash,  or  muriate  of  87  per  cent 
purity.  The  salts  remaining  in  the  mother  liquor  containing  approxi- 
mately 19  per  cent  potash  and  1%  per  cent  of  iodine,  practically  all 
of  which  is  recoverable. 

Summary  of  Methods  of  Procedure. —  {a)  Partial  drying,  separ- 
ation of  effloresced  salts  (probably  containing  less  than  one-third  of 
the  total  potash),  drying  and  grinding  the  residuum  for  use  as  a  low 
grade  potash  and  nitrogen  fertilizer.  This  method  is  of  doubtful  value 
for  all  varieties  of  plants,  particularly  for  Macrocystis. 

(b)  Extraction  of  most  of  the  potash  and  iodine  from  the  fresh 
or  dried  material  by  lixiviation  with  water,  evaporation  of  the  solution 
to  dryness  followed  by  charring,  separation  of  potash  salts  and  iodine 
from  the  char,  drying  and  grinding  the  residuum  containing  80  per 
cent  of  the  nitrogen  and  two-thirds  or  more  of  the  organic  matter, 
thus  furnishing  a  humus-making  material  (organic  matter)  containing 
approximately  3  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  This  method  involves  the  least 
loss  of  valuable  constituents,  but  requires  the  handling  of  bulky  solu- 


io  Study  of  the  Organic  Constituents  of  Pacific  Coast  Kelps,  by  D.  E.  Hoag- 
land, unpublished  manuscript. 

11  Unpublished  manuscript,  by  D.  R.  Hoagland. 


210  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

tions  of  viscous  materials,  evaporation  of  large  quantities  of  water 
and  extensive  equipment. 

(<?)  Charring  of  dried  kelp,  lixiviation  of  char,  separation  of  most 
of  the  potash  as  high  grade  salts  and  of  about  80  per  cent  of  the  iodine, 
drying  of  the  charcoal  obtained.  This  method  involves  loss  of  nitrogen 
and  carbonaceous  material,  but  is  relatively  simple  and  economical  in 
practice. 

Possibilities  of  Developing  a  Kelp  Industry. — The  development  of 
such  an  industry  will  depend  upon  the  relation  of  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction and  the  prices  obtainable  for  the  products.  It  would  be 
useless  with  data  of  the  character  obtainable  in  the  laboratory  to 
attempt  to  formulate  the  cost  of  the  various  procedures  involved  in 
the  production  of  the  commodities  mentioned.  Any  such  estimate 
would  be  a  very  rough  approximation  and  definite  figures  could  only 
be  obtained  as  a  result  of  actual  factory  experience.  Furthermore, 
the  cost  of  harvesting  the  plants  is  extremely  problematical.  In  the 
absence  of  data  covering  these  points  estimates  of  costs  are  likely  t<> 
be  futile.  Estimates  of  the  value  of  the  product,  however,  are  useful 
as  indicating  the  obvious  limitations  to  which  commercial  production 
will  be  confined.  The  maximum  value  of  the  constituents  obtainable 
from  kelp  are  indicated  in  the  following  table : 

Composition  of  Kelp  (Microcystis) 

Maximum   Recovery 

Pounds        , A -^  Price  per  Total 

Percentage     per  ton         Per  cent       Pounds  pound  value 

Moisture    86.41  1728.2  

Nitrogen    19  3.8  80           3.04  15c  $0.46 

Potash    1.82  36.4  100         36.4  3%c  $1.36 

Iodine  03  .6  80             .48  $3.00  $1.44 


The  commodities  obtainable  are  iodine,  high  grade  muriate  of 
potash  and  fertilizer  filler  comprising  the  bulk  of  the  organic  matter 
of  kelp  freed  from  all  soluble  constituents  (salts)  and  carrying  8  per 
cent  of  nitrogen. 

It  is  not  believed  commercially  possible  to  manufacture  sulfate 
of  ammonia  from  kelp,  because  it  has  been  shown  by  Turrentine12 
that  in  the  destructive  distillation  of  kelps  a  large  proportion  of  the 
nitrogen  is  evolved  as  such  and  not  as  ammonia.  Again  Hoagland 
has  shown  the  same  thing  and,  furthermore,  gives  data13  indicating 


12  Note  on  the  Distillation  of  Kelp,  by  J.  W.  Turrentine,  Proceedings  of  the 
Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  15,  p.  313. 

13  Unpublished  manuscript,  by  D.  E.  Hoagland. 


Bulletin  248  PACIFIC   COAST  KELPS  211 

that  there  are  no  special  by-products  from  the  destructive  distillation 
of  such  a  character  as  to  justify  the  expectation  that  a  part  of  the 
cost  of  the  necessary  distillation  could  be  defrayed  by  profits  from 
such  other  products.  The  commercial  value  of  the  potash  is  unques- 
tionably equal  to  that  of  the  potash  obtainable  from  high  grade 
muriate  of  potash,  and  the  market  quotation  for  this  commodity  is 
used  in  the  above  estimate.  The  commercial  value  of  the  nitrogen  is 
taken  at  approximately  the  cost  of  nitrogen  in  nitrate  of  soda.  The 
third  commodity,  iodine,  is  taken  to  have  a  value  equal  to  that  of 
recent  market  quotations  for  this  substance  as  obtained  from  other 
sources.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  it  is  hardly  reasonable  to 
expect  that  the  iodine  price  will  be  maintained  in  the  case  of  a  large 
production  from  kelp,  so  that  current  market  prices  unquestionably 
represent  the  maximum  value  which  could  be  expected  from  this 
source. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  figures  given  that  the  value  of  the  various 
commodities,  assuming  the  maximum  recovery  of  each  constituent  is 
$3.26  per  ton  of  wet  kelp.  If  we  assume  that  market  conditions  will 
not  permit  of  the  sale  of  iodine  in  competition  with  that  obtained 
from  other  sources  of  supply,  the  maximum  value  of  the  remaining 
constituents  is  $1.82  per  ton  of  wet  kelp. 

The  data  heretofore  given  indicate  that  the  production  of  manu- 
factured products  from  kelp  is  unquestionably  a  relatively  compli- 
cated process.  The  estimates  show  that  the  gross  income  derivable 
from  the  various  products  is  not  great.  It  would  seem,  therefore, 
that  expectations  of  enormous  profits  from  the  development  of  a  kelp 
industry  are  not  likely  to  be  realized.  On  the  other  hand,  the  data 
do  not  exclude  the  possibility  of  some  profit. 

DRIED  AND  GROUND  KELP  AS  A  COMMERCIAL  PRODUCT 

The  remaining  procedure  for  the  manufacture  of  kelp  which  would 
seem  to  offer  commercial  opportunity  is  the  drying  and  grinding  of 
kelp  and  selling  it  as  such.  The  manipulation  and  equipment  involved 
is  of  the  simplest  character  and  the  method  as  a  whole  would  seem 
to  offer  fair  opportunities  for  success.  The  objections  urged  are  that 
it  involves  the  loss  of  iodine  and  the  possibility  that  the  product 
obtained  will  be  of  less  commercial  value  per  unit  of  potash  and 
nitrogen  than  that  of  high  grade  manufactured  products.  Further- 
more, that  there  is  a  prejudice  against  this  material  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  it  contains  a  certain  proportion  of  sodium  chloride. 
Finally,  that  manufactured  products  would  yield  a  higher  price  and 


212  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

lower  freight  rate  per  unit  of  potash  than  does  dried  kelp.  Of  all 
of  the  objections  urged,  the  last,  namely,  that  the  cost  of  transpor- 
tation of  high  grade  manufactured  products  would  be  less  than  that 
of  the  comparatively  low  grade  dried  kelp  would  appear  to  be  the 
only  valid  one.  This  latter  objection  will  disappear  if  the  cost  of 
manufacturing  the  high  grade  product  is  sufficiently  great  to  offset 
the  benefit  of  a  low  freight  rate.  The  difficulties  of  making  exact 
estimates  of  the  cost  of  manufacturing  high  grade  products  have  been 
set  forth.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  no  such  comparisons  are 
necessary,  provided  the  low  grade  material  actually  has  sufficient 
value  as  compared  with  commodities  of  similar  potash  content  carrying 
equal  freight  rates. 

It  is  frequently  stated  that  the  value  of  dried  and  ground  kelp 
will  be  materially  diminished  because  of  its  content  of  sodium  chloride, 
and  attempts  have  been  made  to  remove  this  salt  from  the  kelp  by 
washing  with  water.  No  such  method  is  practicable  because  of  the 
large  quantities  of  potassium  chloride  relatively  to  sodium  chloride 
in  the  principal  varieties  of  kelp.  The  only  possible  method  of  separ- 
atum the  sodium  salts  from  the  potassium  salts  is  that  of  fractional 
crystallization  heretofore  outlined.  All  attempts  to  wash  sodium 
chloride  out  of  either  the  fresh  or  dried  and  ground  kelp  will  simply 
result  in  the  removal  of  both  potassium  and  sodium  salts  in  amounts 
commensurate  with  their  solubilities  and  relative  quantities. 

The  following  table  of  analyses  by  P.  L.  Hibbard  of  this  laboratory 
indicates  the  composition  of  the  various  salts  found  in  kelp. 

TABLE  8 

Percentage  Composition  of  the  Ash  of  the  Harvestable  Portions  of 

Macrocystis  Pyrifera,  Nereocystis  Luetkeana,  and 

Pelagophycus  Porra 


Macrocystis 
pyrifera 

Nereocystis 
Luetkeana 

Pelagophycus 
porra 

Ca 

4.96 

2.10 

2.09 

Mg 

2.24 

1.55 

1.71 

Na 

10.52 

11.05 

8.63 

K 

29.46 

32.66 

34.73 

FeX^ 
A12CU 

.43 

.17 

.26 

CI 

34.93 

40.89 

40.83 

so4 

7.92 

4.63 

4.84 

co3 

4.44 

3.10 

1.66 

P04 

2.30 
97.20 

1.91 

2.18 

98.06 

96.93 

rotal  ash  in  water- 

free  materia], 

35.62 

50.57 

52.66 

Bulletin  248 


PACIFIC    COAST    KELPS 


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214  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT    STATION 

The  ions  here  present  which  might  tend  to  lower  the  agricultural 
and  hence  the  commercial  value  of  dried  and  ground  kelp  are  limited 
to  sodium  and  chlorine,  but  these  same  ions  are  to  be  found  in  large 
quantities  in  all  of  the  high  grade  commercial  potash  salts  with  the 
exception  of  sulfate  of  potash. 

Relative  Potassium,  Sodium  and  Chlorine  Context  of  Various  Commodities 

Potassium  Sodium  Chlorine 

Microcystis  pyrifera  100  35.7  118.6 

Nereocystis  Luetkeana  '. 100  33.8  125.2 

Pelagophycus  porra  100  24.8  117.6 

Muriate  of  potash,  90-95%  basis  100  5.8  99.9 

Muriate  of  potash,  80-85%  basis 100  13.0  111.2 

Muriate  of  potash,  70-75%  basis  100  21.5  123.2 

Potash  manure  salts,  20%  minimum  100  90.5  248.3 

Potash  manure  salts,  30%  minimum  100  40.4  165.2 

Kainit  100  128.5  294.2 

Carnallit 100  108.0  454.7 

Sylvinit    100  154.3  337.8 

It  is  at  once  evident  that  few  of  the  commercial  salts  are  in  any 
way  superior  to  dried  and  ground  kelp  in  the  matter  of  sodium  and 
chlorine  content.  Of  all  of  these  commodities,  it  is  seen  that  only  the 
90-95  per  cent  and  the  80-85  per  cent  muriate  are  appreciably  superior 
to  kelps  in  that  they  are  lower  in  their  relative  sodium  content. 
Muriate  of  potash,  70-75  per  cent,  has  a  potassium-sodium  ratio  of  the 
same  order  of  magnitude  as  that  of  kelp,  and  all  of  the  lower  grades 
of  commercial  salts  are  distinctly  inferior  in  this  respect.  The  results 
of  the  comparison  when  we  turn  to  chlorine  are  even  more  striking. 
The  ratio  of  chlorine  to  potassium  in  the  highest  grade  of  muriate  is 
of  the  same  order  of  magnitude  as  that  of  kelp,  and  all  of  the  other 
commercial  potash  salts  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  chlorine  to 
potassium.  About  one-half  million  tons  of  kainit  are  used  in  this 
country  annually,  to  say  nothing  of  the  other  grades  of  potassium 
salts  containing  sodium  and  chlorine.  Any  objection  to  the  use  of 
kelp  on  the  basis  of  sodium  and  chlorine  could  certainly  be  urged 
with  more  force  against  the  use  of  kainit  and  with  almost  equal  force 
against  the  use  of  the  ordinary  grades  of  muriate.  In  so  far  as  its 
sodium  and  chlorine  content  is  concerned,  dried  and  ground  kelp, 
therefore,  is  superior  in  agricultural  value  to  the  potassium  salt,  which 
is  most  largely  used  in  this  country. 

If  we  abandon  the  comparative  method  and  consider  the  chlorine 
content  of  kelp  on  its  own  merits,  it  may  be  stated  that  there  is  little 
evidence  to  show  that  potash  in  the  form  of  muriate  is  inferior  to 
other  salts  as  a  potash  fertilizer  when  applied  to  crops  in  general,  and 
data  is  also  available  tending  to  show  that  the  same  thing  is  true  in 


Bulletin  248  PACIFIC  COAST  KELPS  215 

the  case  of  potatoes,  which  have  been  largely  cited  as  a  crop  which 
is  injured  by  the  presence  of  chlorine.14  Evidently  the  only  condition 
under  which  danger  is  to  be  anticipated  from  the  use  of  kelp  as  a 
potash  fertilizer  is  on  those  soils  the  soluble  salt  content  of  which 
already  approaches  the  toxic  limit.  All  such  cases  must  of  course  be 
considered  on  their  merits.  The  agricultural  value  per  unit  of  the 
potash  contained  in  dried  and  ground  kelp  must  be  considered  to  be 
superior  to  that  of  most  of  the  commercial  potash  salts  and  but  little 
inferior  to  those  of  the  highest  potash  content. 

Considered  strictly  from  the  plant  food  content,  the  following 
figures  are  of  interest  as  indicating  what  is  to  be  expected  from  kelp 
in  various  conditions  of  moisture  content : 

Average  Composition  of  Harvestable  Kelp  (Microcystis  Pyrifera) 

Percentage 

of  Percentage 

Percentage             Percentage         Phosphoric  of 

of                             of                        Acid  Potash 

Moisture               Nitrogen               (P2°5)  (K2°) 

Fresh  86.41  .19  .10  1.82 

Water  free  1.41  .75  13.63 

Air  dry  16.0  1.18  .63  11.45 

The  air-dried  kelp  should  contain  on  the  average  about  16  per  cent 
of  moisture.  This  is  of  course  subject  to  fluctuations  in  the  hygro- 
scopic content  of  the  atmosphere.  Under  highly  unfavorable  condi- 
tions in  damp  weather  when  the  dry  kelp  is  spread  out  it  may  absorb 
as  high  as  30  per  cent  of  moisture,  but  loses  this  again  as  soon  as  the 
moisture  content  of  the  atmosphere  falls.  Air-dried  kelp,  therefore, 
contains  approximately  the  same  amount  of  potash  as  kainit,  slightly 
more  than  1  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  about  .6  of  1  per  cent  of 
phosphoric  acid.  Little  is  to  be  expected  from  kelp  in  so  far  as  its 
phosphoric  acid  content  is  concerned.  The  value  and  limitations  of 
the  nitrogen  have  been  studied  by  Stewart  of  this  laboratory  and 
reported  elsewhere.15  In  view  of  all  existing  information,  it  seems 
fair  to  assign  a  commercial  value  to  the  constituents  of  kelp  of  about 
$3  per  unit  for  nitrogen  and  75  cents  per  unit  for  potash.  The  com- 
mercial value  of  air-dried  kelp,  then,  should  approximate  $12  per  ton 
arid  justify  additional  charges  for  freight  at  least  equal  to  transpor- 
tation charges  on  kainit.  This  requires  that  approximately  6.2  tons 
of  fresh  Macrocystis  be  harvested  to  furnish  one  ton  of  kelp  worth 
approximately  $12.  Where  this  can  be  done  at  a  profit  the  utilization 
of  kelp  will  be  a  commercial  success. 


I*  The  Use  and  Value  of  Seaweed  as  Manure,  by  James  Hendrick,  Trans- 
actions of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  5th  Series,  Vol.  10. 

is  Studies  on  the  Availability  of  the  Nitrogen  in  Pacific  Coast  Kelps,  by 
G.  R.  Stewart,  unpublished  manuscript. 


STATION    PUBLICATIONS    AVAILABLE    FOR    DISTRIBUTION 


REPORTS 

1897.      Resistant  Vines,  their  Selection,   Adaptation,   and  Grafting.     Appendix  to   Yiticultural 
Report  for  1896. 

1902.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for   1898-1901. 

1903.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment   Station  for   1901-03. 

1904.  Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for   1903-04. 

1914.      Report   of  the   College   of  Agriculture   and   the   Agricultural    Experiment    Station,    Julv, 
1913-June,    1914. 


BULLETINS 


No. 

116. 
168. 


169. 

170. 
174. 

177. 

178. 
182. 

183. 
184. 

185. 

186. 
195. 
197. 


198. 
203. 


207. 


No. 

46. 

62. 

65. 
68. 
69. 

70. 

75. 
76. 
79. 
80. 
82. 

83. 
84. 
87. 


The  California  Vine  Hopper. 

Observations  on  Some  Vine  Diseases 
in  Sonoma  County. 

Tolerance  of  the  Sugar  Beet  for 
Alkali. 

Studies  in  Grasshopper  Control. 

A  New  Wine-Cooling  Machine. 

A  New  Method  of  Making  Dry  Red 
Wine. 

Mosquito  Control. 

Analysis  of  Paris  Green  and  Lead 
Arsenate.  Proposed  Insecticide  Law. 

The   California   Tussock-moth. 

Report  of  the  Plant  Pathologist  to 
July   1,    1906. 

Report  of  Progress  in  Cereal  Investi- 
gations. 

Odium  of  the  Vine. 

The  California  Grape  Root-worm. 

Grape  Culture  in  California ;  Im- 
proved Methods  of  Wine-making; 
Yeast  from   California  Grapes. 

The  Grape  Leaf-Hopper. 

Report  of  the  Plant  Pathologist  to 
July   1,    1909. 

The  Control  of  the  Argentine  Ant. 


No. 
208.   The  Late  Blight  of  Celery. 

211.  How  to  Increase  the  Yield  of   Wheat 

in  California. 

212.  California  White  Wheats. 

213.  The   Principles   of   Wine-making. 

215.  The    House    Fly    in    its    Relation    to 

Public  Health. 

216.  A    Progress    Report    upon     Soil    and 

Climatic     Factors     Influencing     the 
Composition  of  Wheat. 

224.  The  Production  of  the  Lima  Bean. 

225.  Tolerance  of  Eucalyptus  for  Alkali. 
227.   Grape  Vinegar. 

230.   Enological    Investigations. 
234.   Red     Spiders    and    Mites    of     Citrus 
Trees. 

240.  Commercial   Fertilizers. 

241.  Vine  Pruning  in  California.     Part  I. 

242.  Humus   in   California   Soils. 

243.  The     Intradermal     Test     for    Tuber- 

culosis in  Cattle  and  Hogs. 

244.  Utilization  of  Waste  Oranges. 

245.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

246.  Vine  Pruning  in  California,  Part  II. 

247.  Irrigation  and  Measuring  Devices. 


CIRCULARS 

No. 


OS. 


100. 
101. 


102. 


Suggestions  for  Garden  Work  in  Cali- 
fornia Schools. 

The  School  Garden  in  the  Course  of 
Study. 

The   California   Insecticide   Law. 

The  Prevention  of  Hog  Cholera. 

The  Extermination  of  Morning-Glory. 

Observation  of  the  Status  of  Corn 
Growing   in   California. 

A  New  Leakage  Gauge. 

Hot   Room   Callusing. 

List  of   Insecticide  Dealers. 

Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs. 

The  Common  Ground  Squirrels  of 
California. 

Potato  Growing  Clubs. 

Mushrooms  and  Toadstools. 

Alfalfa. 

Advantages  to  the  Breeder  in  Test- 
ing his  Pure-bred  Cows  for  the 
Register  of  Merit. 

Disinfection  on   the  Farm. 

Infectious  Abortion  and  Sterility  in 
Cows. 

Plowing  and  Cultivating  Soils  in 
California. 

Pruning  Frosted  Citrus  Trees. 

Codling  Moth  Control  in  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley. 

The  Woolly  Aphis. 


106.  Directions  for  using  Anti-Hog-Cholera 

Serum. 

107.  Spraying    Walnut    Trees    for    Blight 

and  Aphis  Control. 

108.  Grape  Juice. 

109.  Community  or  Local  Extension  Work 

by    the    High    School    Agricultural 
Department. 

110.  Green   Manuring  in   California. 

111.  The    Use    of    Lime    and    Gypsum    on 

California    Soils. 

112.  The  County  Farm  Adviser. 

113.  Announcement    of    Correspondence 

Courses  in  Agriculture. 

114.  Increasing  the  Duty  of  Water. 

115.  Grafting  Vinifera  Vineyards. 

116.  Silk  Worm   Experiments. 

117.  The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small 

Pumping  Plant. 

118.  The  County  Farm  Bureau. 

119.  Winery  Directions. 

120.  Potato   Growing   in  the   San   Joaquin 

and     Sacramento     Deltas     of     Cali- 
fornia. 

121.  Some   Things  the   Prospective   Settler 

Should  Know. 

122.  The  Management  of  Strawberry  Soils 

in  Pajaro  Valley. 

123.  Fundamental   Principles   of   Co-opera- 

tion in  Agriculture. 


